For over two decades, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has been at the heart of an economic and geopolitical war linked to its immense natural resources. The provinces of North and South Kivu, rich in coltan, gold, cobalt, cassiterite, and other strategic minerals, have become the theater of a conflict that extends far beyond national borders.
Behind the official rhetoric of peace and regional integration lie colossal economic interests. The recent Washington Accords between Rwanda and the DRC, as well as the regional economic integration project supervised by the United States, fit into this logic. In reality, they constitute a diplomatically crafted instrument designed to legitimize and institutionalize the exploitation of Congolese minerals by Rwanda, for the benefit of foreign powers, primarily the United States.
1. The Context: Cooperation Under Tension
The DRC, a sovereign country endowed with natural resources estimated at over $24 trillion, has long sought to attract strategic partners to develop its economy and stabilize its institutions. In this context, the Congolese government requested support from Washington to strengthen security in the East and establish economic cooperation focused on local valorization of critical minerals—cobalt, lithium, copper, and tantalum—essential to the global energy transition.
However, instead of a direct bilateral partnership between Kinshasa and Washington, the United States introduced a third actor: Rwanda. This choice, perceived as a provocation by many Congolese, is explained by the historical and military proximity between Washington and Kigali, considered a stable and docile ally in the Great Lakes region.
Thus, the Washington Accords resulted in the creation of a tripartite framework purportedly focused on economic integration and regional stability. But behind this facade of cooperation, a system of legalized exploitation of Congolese resources is being established.
2. Rwanda as the United States' Strategic Intermediary
Rwanda, a country of 26,000 km² devoid of significant mineral resources, has paradoxically become one of the world's largest exporters of coltan and cassiterite—two minerals not found in exploitable quantities on its soil. This glaring contradiction is explained by the systematic smuggling of Congolese minerals from areas under the control of armed groups supported by Kigali, notably the M23.
By introducing Rwanda into the Washington Accords, the United States indirectly officializes this illegitimate intermediary role. Rwanda becomes a diplomatic and economic corridor through which Congolese minerals transit before being exported to American and Western industries.
This strategy allows Washington to present itself as a neutral peacemaking partner, while guaranteeing a stable supply of critical minerals indispensable to its technology giants (Apple, Tesla, Boeing, etc.) without having to negotiate directly with a Congolese state perceived as unstable and difficult to control.
3. Regional Economic Integration: A Facade for Spoliation
3.1. The Mechanism of Asymmetric Integration
Under the pretext of regional economic integration, the accords promote the free movement of goods, capital, and services between the DRC, Rwanda, and other countries in the region. On the surface, this could favor cross-border trade and economic cooperation. But in practice, this openness primarily benefits Rwanda, which already has well-organized export logistics, modern industrial free zones, and an effective diplomatic network.
Minerals extracted from Kivu are illegally transported to Gisenyi or Goma, then shipped to Kigali, where they are reclassified as Rwandan products before being exported to international markets. Regional economic integration, supported by Washington, legalizes this chain of exploitation by removing criticism of Rwanda's theft of DRC resources.
Rwanda, under the guise of a "reliable regional partner," thus consolidates its role as an economic intermediary, while further weakening the DRC's sovereignty over its own resources.
3.2. The Value Transfer Strategy: From Raw Congo to Refined Rwanda
One of the most revealing aspects of the Washington Accords lies in how they organize the mining value chain between the DRC and Rwanda. According to the practical provisions of this regional cooperation, raw minerals extracted from Congolese soil—cobalt, coltan, copper, tin, and gold—are transported to Rwanda, where new processing and refining plants financed by American, Asian, and European funds are installed.
In other words, the industrial added value, that is, the most profitable phase of the mining process, is not created in the DRC, the producing country, but displaced to Rwanda, a non-producing country. This economic scheme transforms the DRC into a mere raw material supplier, while Rwanda becomes the center of transformation, export, and profit. This is contrary to the African strategy of valorizing their natural resources locally instead of exporting them in raw form to industrialized countries.
Washington justifies this choice by citing the need for political stability, investment security, and "good governance," implying that the DRC is not yet ready to host cutting-edge industrial infrastructure. In reality, this is a perfectly calculated strategy aimed at controlling the value chain without directly depending on a sovereign Congolese state.
Thus, the United States indirectly finances Rwandan industrial zones specialized in coltan and lithium processing, under the cover of "regional cooperation." Rwanda then exports these processed minerals under its own national label, receiving the commercial and diplomatic benefits of a product that originally comes from Congolese soil.
This mechanism reinforces the asymmetry: Congo becomes impoverished by exporting raw materials, while Rwanda and its Western partners enrich themselves by exporting refined products. This is not regional integration—it is an organized externalization of Congolese economic value.
3.3. A Selective Regional Framework Serving Rwanda
Another troubling aspect of the Washington Accords is their partially opaque and selective character. Officially, it is supposed to be a regional economic cooperation framework open to several countries in East Africa and the Great Lakes, including the DRC, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, and Uganda. However, in practice, only Rwanda benefits from immediate and privileged integration in the first phase of the project.
Neither Burundi, despite being a DRC neighbor and holder of strategic mineral resources similar to those of Kivu (nickel, rare earths, gold), nor Tanzania, a key logistical actor with its ports and commercial corridors, have been actively associated with the initial cooperation framework. Burundi, which deploys its troops alongside Congolese forces to fight armed groups, has been excluded from the process without clear justification.
This selective exclusion highlights the American strategy: to entrust Rwanda with the role of regional pivot, both political and economic, in managing and exporting Congolese minerals. Rwanda thus becomes the "model partner" chosen by Washington to supervise the supply chain of critical minerals, while other countries in the region are relegated to a secondary or consultative role.
The paradox is all the more glaring since the United Nations Security Council has repeatedly demanded the withdrawal of Rwandan troops from Congolese territory, accused of supporting armed groups responsible for serious human rights violations. Yet, despite this requirement, Rwanda remains at the heart of economic cooperation supported by the United States, which amounts to diplomatic legitimization of a de facto occupation.
In sum, these accords reveal that Washington is not acting as a neutral arbiter, but as an organizing power of a hierarchical regional exploitation system, where Rwanda is promoted to the rank of principal manager of Congolese wealth, while the DRC and its regional allies are marginalized.
3.4. The Diplomatic Paradox: Washington Speaks of Peace While Rewarding the Aggressor
One of the most glaring paradoxes of the Washington Accords lies in the contradiction between the discourse of peace and the reality of alliances. Officially, the United States presents itself as a mediator in the conflict between the Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda, advocating regional stability, economic cooperation, and an end to hostilities. However, in practice, American policy rewards precisely the state accused of fueling the war: Rwanda.
By granting Kigali a central role in the processing and commercialization of Congolese minerals, Washington sends a dangerous message—that a country can benefit from military aggression, provided it serves the strategic economic interests of the West. This approach not only undermines the credibility of the United States as an impartial actor, but it directly undermines peace efforts undertaken by the East African Community (EAC) and SADC (Southern African Development Community).
This diplomatic favoritism reflects a logic of "conditional peace," where Congo's security depends not on respect for its sovereignty, but on its ability to accept an imposed economic framework. In other words, the goal is not to resolve the causes of the conflict—namely the occupation and pillage of resources—but to institutionalize this pillage in a presentable form.
While Rwanda benefits from American investments in its processing plants and special economic zones, the DRC continues to bear the human and environmental consequences of an endless war: massive population displacements, civilian massacres, infrastructure destruction, loss of control over its mining borders.
The UN Security Council has confirmed Rwanda's responsibility in supporting the M23 and in violations of Congolese sovereignty. But Washington, instead of sanctioning its ally, chooses to reward it with economic partnerships. This inconsistency lays bare the true nature of these accords: it is not about peace, but about a geoeconomic reconfiguration of mining exploitation disguised as diplomacy.
Thus, behind the seductive vocabulary of "regional cooperation" and "economic integration," lies a brutal reality: the Washington Accords legitimize Rwanda's stranglehold on Congolese minerals, while offering the United States privileged access to these resources under an appearance of legality.
4. The United States and Securing Their Strategic Supply
The global energy transition relies on so-called critical minerals: cobalt, lithium, copper, and nickel. The DRC holds more than 70% of the world's cobalt reserves, a metal indispensable to the manufacture of electric batteries and green technologies. The United States, concerned about reducing its dependence on China, has intensified its efforts to secure alternative supply sources.
But working directly with the DRC entails political and logistical risks: instability, corruption, insecurity. Rwanda, on the other hand, offers a centralized, disciplined governance model aligned with Western interests. Thus, under the umbrella of the Washington Accords, the United States delegates the regional management of its mining interests to Kigali. Instead of helping the DRC improve its economic governance, security in the east, and the exploitation/enhancement of Congolese resources locally, the United States opts for the cheaper and existing route, which is Rwanda. This demonstrates that in reality, the DRC benefits nothing from these accords and its bilateral initiatives with the United States.
This triangular system presents three strategic advantages for Washington:
- It masks the reality of spoliation behind a discourse of regional integration.
- It reduces the political and financial costs associated with direct negotiation with Kinshasa.
- It ensures a stable supply of strategic minerals for its industries.
Clearly, the United States does not need to consolidate economic relations with the DRC: it is sufficient for them to control economic flows through a satellite state—Rwanda.
5. The Washington Accords: Officializing the Theft of Congolese Minerals
In reality, the Washington Accords are nothing more than a diplomatic packaging of the already existing pillage of the Democratic Republic of Congo's resources. For over 25 years, Rwanda has illegally exploited Congolese minerals through armed groups it directly supports in the eastern part of the country. Now, with the blessing of the United States, this spoliation is provided with an "official" framework that makes it presentable on the international stage.
Under the pretext of regional economic cooperation, minerals extracted from the Congolese provinces of North and South Kivu continue to be transported to Rwanda, where they are "laundered" through legally recognized export circuits. These minerals, often stamped as "Rwandan," are then sold on American, Asian, and European markets, integrated into the supply chains of major technology companies. Thus, war and occupation become economically profitable for Kigali, while the DRC becomes mired in chronic insecurity and loss of economic sovereignty.
The United States, by promoting these accords at the very moment when Rwanda militarily occupies part of eastern Congo, effectively validates this occupation. Instead of demanding the withdrawal of Rwandan troops, as ordered by the UN Security Council, Washington chooses to reward the aggressor by entrusting it with the industrial and commercial management of Congolese minerals.
The Washington Accords are therefore not an instrument of peace, but a tool for legitimizing theft and regional domination. They officialize the continuous transfer of Congolese wealth to Rwanda, while maintaining war as a control mechanism. While Congo exhausts itself in conflicts, Rwanda enriches itself, and the United States secures its mining interests under the cover of economic diplomacy.
6. Consequences for Congolese Sovereignty
For the DRC, the implications of these accords are serious. First, they undermine national sovereignty by de facto transferring part of the country's economic control to a historically hostile neighbor. Second, they perpetuate the colonial logic of resource extraction without local transformation or real benefits for the Congolese population.
Despite promises of investment and cooperation, no major infrastructure has been built to refine or process minerals in the DRC. Wealth leaves Congolese soil in raw form, enriching foreign financial circuits and depriving the Congolese state of essential tax revenues.
Finally, from a security perspective, these accords legitimize Rwanda's presence in the Kivu region, under the guise of regional cooperation. This further weakens pacification efforts, as armed groups supported by Kigali continue to operate with impunity in mining areas.
7. The Complicit Silence of International Institutions
The international community, though informed of this situation, adopts an ambivalent attitude. The United Nations and major Western powers congratulate themselves on "regional integration efforts" and "cross-border economic cooperation," without questioning the legitimacy of Rwanda's role in exploiting Congolese resources.
Reports by UN experts, Human Rights Watch, or Amnesty International have documented for years the systematic pillage of Congo by Rwanda and other foreign actors. However, these reports remain without real political consequences, as they directly contradict the economic interests of the United States and its allies.
8. Diplomacy of Pillage Under the Cover of Peace
Ultimately, the Washington Accords and regional economic integration are diplomatic instruments that institutionalize pillage. Under the pretext of strengthening peace and cooperation, they construct an economic architecture where the DRC remains the raw supplier, Rwanda the processor, and the United States the final consumer.
This hierarchy perpetuates colonial inequalities: Congo remains a modern "mining colony," while Rwanda plays the role of a docile intermediary valued by the West. Peace is not the real objective; it is merely a narrative tool to guarantee the continuity of exploitation.
Conclusion: Cooperation That Conceals Economic Domination
The Washington Accords do not represent progress toward peace or equitable regional integration, but rather a sophisticated reconfiguration of the pillage of Congolese resources. By placing Rwanda at the center of the economic and industrial apparatus, the United States has chosen to entrust an actor accused of aggression and occupation with the role of manager of Congolese minerals. This choice is not insignificant: it reveals a geopolitical strategy where economic control takes precedence over justice and sovereignty.
Under the cover of "regional cooperation," Washington seeks to secure its supply of critical minerals—cobalt, lithium, coltan—essential to its technology industry and the global energy transition. But instead of helping the DRC develop its own processing capabilities and strengthen its national economy, these accords externalize the added value to Rwanda, thereby consolidating a neocolonial exploitation model.
Congo, once again, finds itself at the bottom of the global value chain, exporting raw wealth and importing poverty. While Kigali reaps diplomatic and economic benefits, Kinshasa loses control of its resources and its industrial destiny.
True peace in the region will not come from pacts imposed from Washington, but from a restoration of economic sovereignty to the DRC and strict respect for international law. As long as Congolese minerals are exploited by proxy, no sustainable regional integration or genuine stability will be possible.
The Washington Accords are not an initiative for equitable cooperation. They represent a new chapter of economic neocolonialism in Central Africa, where American diplomacy allies itself with a complicit regime to secure its strategic interests.
As long as the DRC does not demand direct and transparent bilateral cooperation based on mutual respect, and as long as it tolerates Rwandan interference in its economic affairs, its sovereignty will remain theoretical.
What is at stake through these accords is not merely a question of trade, but a question of national dignity and control of strategic resources that should serve the development of the Congolese people, not enrich foreign powers through a predatory neighbor.
The DRC must break the cycle of pillage and dependency, refuse asymmetric accords dictated by Washington, and take back control of the destiny of its minerals, which constitute not only the key to its future, but also to its true economic and political independence.
References
[1] International Crisis Group, "Eastern Congo: The ADF and the Prison of War", Africa Report N°298, 2021.
[2] World Bank, "Democratic Republic of Congo: Systematic Country Diagnostic", 2018. Estimates vary by source, ranging from $24 trillion to $35 trillion USD.
[3] U.S. Department of State, "U.S. Strategy Toward Sub-Saharan Africa: Advancing African Peace and Prosperity", 2022.
[4] Reyntjens, Filip, "Rwanda, Ten Years On: From Genocide to Dictatorship", African Affairs, Vol. 103, No. 411, 2004, pp. 177-210.
[5] United Nations Group of Experts on the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Report S/2023/431, June 2023. Rwanda annually exports thousands of tons of coltan and cassiterite despite the absence of significant exploitable reserves.
[6] Human Rights Watch, "Democratic Republic of Congo: M23 Rebels Committing War Crimes", December 2022. The report documents Rwanda's military and logistical support to the M23.
[7] Nest, Michael, "Coltan", Polity Press, 2011. Detailed analysis of the global supply chain of Congolese coltan to the electronics industry.
[8] Montague, Dena, "Stolen Goods: Coltan and Conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo", SAIS Review, Vol. 22, No. 1, 2002, pp. 103-118.
[9] African Development Bank, "Mineral Value Chains in Africa: Rwanda's Positioning in Regional Mineral Processing", 2023.
[10] African Union, Agenda 2063: "The Africa We Want", 2015. The AU promotes industrialization and local transformation of raw materials as a strategic priority.
[11] Enough Project, "From Mine to Mobile Phone: The Conflict Minerals Supply Chain", 2009. Documentary on the laundering of Congolese minerals via Rwanda.
[12] BBC News, "Burundi sends troops to help DR Congo fight rebels", August 2022.
[13] United Nations Security Council, Resolution 2666 (2022), S/RES/2666, December 2022. Demand for immediate withdrawal of M23 and condemnation of external support to armed groups.
[14] Southern African Development Community (SADC), "Communiqué on the Political and Security Situation in the DRC", Luanda, November 2022.
[15] UNHCR, "DR Congo Emergency", 2023. More than 6 million internally displaced persons due to conflicts in the East.
[16] United Nations Group of Experts, Report S/2022/967, December 2022. Confirmation of Rwandan support to M23 with photographic and testimonial evidence.
[17] U.S. Geological Survey, "Mineral Commodity Summaries: Cobalt", 2024. The DRC produces approximately 70-75% of the world's cobalt.
[18] The White House, "Building Resilient Supply Chains, Revitalizing American Manufacturing, and Fostering Broad-Based Growth", June 2021.
[19] Barma, Naazneen H. et al., "Rents to Riches? The Political Economy of Natural Resource-Led Development", World Bank Publications, 2012.
[20] UN Panel of Experts Report on the Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources and Other Wealth of the DRC, S/2001/357, April 2001. First major report documenting systematic pillage.
[21] Global Witness, "Faced with a Gun, What Can You Do? War and the Militarisation of Mining in Eastern Congo", 2009.
[22] Rodney, Walter, "How Europe Underdeveloped Africa", Howard University Press, 1972. Classic analysis of colonial extraction mechanisms still relevant today.
[23] Kivu Security Tracker (KST), database on violence in eastern DRC, accessed 2024.
[24] Amnesty International, "Democratic Republic of the Congo: 'This is What We Die For': Human Rights Abuses in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Power the Global Trade in Cobalt", 2016; Human Rights Watch, annual reports 2018-2023.
[25] Hochschild, Adam, "King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa", Houghton Mifflin, 1998. Historical context of Congolese pillage.
Supplementary Bibliography
- Autesserre, Séverine, "The Trouble with the Congo: Local Violence and the Failure of International Peacebuilding", Cambridge University Press, 2010.
- Cuvelier, Jeroen, "The Complexity of Resource Governance in a Context of State Fragility: The Case of Eastern DRC", International Peace Information Service (IPIS), 2014.
- Geenen, Sara & Verweijen, Judith, "Explaining fragmented and fluid mobilization in gold mining concessions in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo", The Extractive Industries and Society, Vol. 4, Issue 4, 2017.
- Kabamba, Patience, "Business of Civil War: New Forms of Life in the Debris of the Democratic Republic of Congo", Dakar: CODESRIA, 2013.
- Stearns, Jason K., "Dancing in the Glory of Monsters: The Collapse of the Congo and the Great War of Africa", PublicAffairs, 2011.
- Turner, Thomas, "The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality", Zed Books, 2007.
- Van Reybrouck, David, "Congo: The Epic History of a People", HarperCollins, 2014.
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