When people hear about the Rwandan genocide,
their minds turn almost exclusively to the 1994 mass slaughter of the Tutsi
minority in Rwanda. Yet, what followed this tragedy remains one of the least
discussed and most complex humanitarian crises in modern African history—the
targeted killing of Rwandan Hutu civilians in the Democratic Republic of the
Congo (DRC). While this chapter rarely features in mainstream conversations, it
is crucial for anyone seeking to understand the full scope of conflict, justice,
and reconciliation in the Great Lakes region of Africa.
Context:
Rwanda, 1994
In 1994, Rwanda experienced one of the worst
genocides of the 20th century. In just 100 days, approximately 800,000 Tutsi
and moderate Hutu were slaughtered by Hutu extremists.When the Rwandan
Patriotic Front (RPF), a Tutsi-led rebel group under the command of Paul
Kagame, took control of the country and ended the genocide, more than two
million Hutu civilians—including many non-combatants, women, and children—fled
into neighbouring countries, especially Zaire (now DRC).
Among the refugees were also perpetrators of
the genocide—members of the former Rwandan Armed Forces (FAR) and the
Interahamwe militia. Their presence among the civilian refugee population would
have profound implications for the entire Great Lakes region.
The Mass
Exodus into Zaire (Now DRC)
Between July and August 1994, more than a
million Hutu refugees poured into eastern Zaire, particularly into the
provinces of North and South Kivu.[4] Humanitarian organisations quickly set up
refugee camps near towns such as Goma and Bukavu, but these camps soon became
militarised. Armed groups took control of food distribution, recruited
fighters, and used the camps as bases to launch cross-border attacks back into
Rwanda.
This created a security nightmare for the
newly established Rwandan government and for the Congolese population who lived
near the camps.
The First
Congo War (1996–1997): Breaking the Refugee Camps
In 1996, Rwanda—along with Uganda—invaded
Zaire to dismantle the refugee camps and pursue the former génocidaires hiding
among the refugees. They supported a Congolese rebel movement led by
Laurent-Désiré Kabila, which eventually overthrew Mobutu Sese Seko in 1997.
During this military campaign, thousands of Rwandan Hutu refugees were hunted
down in the forests of eastern Congo. Many were killed indiscriminately,
whether they were former combatants or civilians.
The United Nations and multiple human rights
organisations have documented a pattern of systematic massacres against Hutu
civilians, especially those fleeing deeper into the Congolese interior. The
routes between Goma and Kisangani became killing corridors.
"Operation
Clean-Up"
Human Rights Watch and other observers
reported that soldiers from the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA) and allied rebel
groups carried out extrajudicial killings, burned camps, and buried victims in
mass graves. This campaign was described by some observers as "Operation
Clean-Up"—a ruthless mission to eliminate any trace of Hutu refugees.
What distinguishes this violence from other
wartime atrocities is that it often targeted entire families, including
children, the elderly, and the infirm. These were not just collateral
casualties of war but appeared to be part of a broader campaign of retribution
and collective punishment.
The Mapping
Report: Evidence of Mass Atrocities
In 2010, the United Nations High Commissioner
for Human Rights released the "UN Mapping Report," which documented
over 600 incidents of serious human rights violations committed in the DRC
between 1993 and 2003. Among its most controversial findings was the claim that
some of the killings of Rwandan Hutu refugees by RPA and allied forces could
"be characterised as crimes of genocide," if proven before a
competent court.
The report stated:
"The extensive and systematic attacks
described in this report, which targeted members of the Hutu ethnic group,
including numerous women, children, and elderly people, may constitute crimes
of genocide."
This suggestion provoked outrage from the
Rwandan government, which called the report "flawed and dangerous."
However, for many human rights advocates, it was a long-overdue acknowledgment
of atrocities that had been ignored or covered up for years.
The Silence
of the International Community
One of the most tragic aspects of the violence
against Rwandan Hutu refugees in the DRC is the lack of international response.
In the aftermath of the 1994 genocide, global attention—and guilt—focused on
rebuilding Rwanda and supporting the RPF-led government. Few international
actors were willing to confront the complex reality that the victims of one
genocide could also become perpetrators of another, and vice versa.
Moreover, humanitarian organisations found
themselves overwhelmed or caught in political crossfire. Some aid workers spoke
out about what they had seen, but their voices were drowned out by the
prevailing narrative of post-genocide Rwanda as a model of recovery.
Why This
History Remains Untold
There are several reasons why the genocide of
Rwandan Hutu civilians in the DRC remains marginalised in historical discourse:
1. Moral
Complexity
The narrative of "good vs evil" is
easier to digest. The RPF stopped a genocide and brought order to Rwanda.
Acknowledging that some of its members may have committed atrocities muddies
this narrative.
2.
Geopolitical Interests
Rwanda became a strategic ally for Western
governments, particularly the United States and the United Kingdom. Criticising
Kagame's government has often been seen as undermining stability in a fragile
region.
3. Lack of
Accountability Mechanisms
There has never been an international tribunal
or major legal process to investigate the killings of Hutu civilians in the
Congo. Unlike the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), which
prosecuted genocide perpetrators from 1994, there has been no equivalent body
to examine the crimes committed during the Congo wars.
4.
Survivors in the Shadows
Many Hutu survivors of the Congo massacres
remain stateless, living in limbo across refugee camps in Africa. Without
organised advocacy, their stories have been left out of the global human rights
agenda.
Human
Impact: Stories from Survivors
Eyewitness testimonies paint a harrowing
picture of suffering:
- Claudine,
a woman from northern Rwanda, described walking for weeks through the
Congolese jungle with her three children. She saw soldiers shoot dozens of
refugees near a river crossing and never found her eldest son again.
- Jean-Baptiste,
a former teacher, said he witnessed the massacre of an entire refugee camp
near Walikale. "They came at night and opened fire. They didn't ask
who we were. Everyone ran, but many were shot or hacked with
machetes."
These stories are rarely included in official
narratives, but they are vital to understanding the full human cost of the
regional conflict.
Implications
for Peace and Reconciliation
If peace is to be sustainable in the Great
Lakes region, the history of all victims must be acknowledged. Truth and
reconciliation cannot be selective. The suffering of the Rwandan Tutsi in 1994
and the Rwandan Hutu in DRC must both be recognised if the region is to move
forward.
Failure to reckon with these crimes not only
leaves survivors without justice but also fuels cycles of revenge and mistrust.
In fact, the ongoing instability in eastern DRC—including the proliferation of
armed groups like the FDLR and M23—is rooted in unresolved grievances dating
back to these events.
Looking
Forward: The Call for Justice
Multiple human rights organisations continue
to call for:
- An
international investigation into the crimes committed against Hutu
civilians in the DRC.
- Independent
courts or commissions to examine the events with impartiality.
- Survivor-led
truth-telling processes to preserve the memories of those who died.
- Reparations
and legal recognition for the victims and their families.
Truth does not diminish the horror of the
Rwandan genocide—it completes the historical picture. Every victim, no matter
their ethnicity or political affiliation, deserves recognition and justice.
Survivor
Testimonies of Atrocities Committed by the RPA/RPF Against Hutu Civilians
These testimonies are drawn from a combination
of UN reports (especially the 2010 UN Mapping Report), Human Rights Watch
investigations, and interviews by journalists and humanitarians on the ground
during and after the war.
1.
Massacres in Refugee Camps (1996)
"They came at night. They had lists. They
called out the names of those who were to be taken. Some never returned. Others
were taken into the forest, and we heard the gunshots. My brother and father
were killed near Tingi-Tingi. I was 12 years old. I still don't know where they
were buried." — Survivor, South Kivu (UN Mapping Report, anonymous
testimony).
2. Walikale
Massacre (November 1996)
"Hundreds of us were walking through the
jungle to escape the fighting. We were stopped by soldiers who told us to sit
down. They told the men to stand up and began shooting them. Then they turned
to the women and children. I lost my whole family that day." — Jean-Marie,
refugee survivor interviewed by a humanitarian worker in Kisangani.
3. Mbandaka
Massacre (May 1997)
More than 300 Hutu refugees, mostly women and
children, were massacred in Mbandaka after being promised food and
repatriation.
"They said we were being taken to safety.
We were hungry and weak. Then the trucks stopped near the river, and they began
shooting. Some tried to escape into the river, but they were shot as they
swam." — UN Mapping Report testimony from a survivor of the Mbandaka
massacre.
4.
Tingi-Tingi to Kisangani Killings
A long trail of massacres occurred as Rwandan
Hutu refugees fled from eastern DRC toward the interior. Testimonies documented
by Human Rights Watch describe:
"Rwandan soldiers would surround the
groups, call out names of the educated or leaders, and kill them. Many were
shot, but others were bludgeoned or hacked to death. Mass graves were dug
quickly, or sometimes the bodies were just left to rot." — Aid worker,
Kisangani (1997).
Silencing
the Dead: The Erasure of Hutu Victims
While the Rwandan genocide of 1994 is rightly
memorialised globally, the mass killings of Hutu civilians in Rwanda and the
DRC have been deliberately erased or denied—both within Rwanda and on the
international stage.
Nighttime
Killings and Mass Disappearances
Numerous survivors, journalists, and former
RPF insiders have described a pattern of nocturnal killings targeting Hutu
families—both in post-genocide Rwanda and in refugee camps and forests in
eastern Congo.
- Victims
were abducted at night and never seen again.
- Entire
households would disappear, and no evidence was left—no bodies, no
funerals, no witnesses.
- Local
populations lived in fear, unable to speak out due to repression,
surveillance, and the threat of being branded "genocide
sympathisers."
"If a family was suspected of being Hutu
'intellectuals' or former refugees, they would be targeted. Often, the killings
were quiet—strangulations, machetes. Whole families vanished in the
night." — Anonymous former Rwandan intelligence officer (interviewed in
exile).
Forced
Drownings and Starvation in the Congo Forest
Eyewitness accounts and UN investigations have
documented mass drownings of Hutu refugees during the RPA's pursuit operations
in the DRC:
- Refugees
fleeing into the forest were pushed into rivers such as the Congo, the
Lubutu, and the Lowa.
- Women
and children were often the first to die, unable to swim or too weak from
hunger.
- Some
bodies were later found downstream, mutilated or bloated, evidence of
extrajudicial executions.
At the same time, tens of thousands starved to
death in the jungle while fleeing the Rwandan army's advance. Aid agencies were
often denied access to these areas.
"We were hunted like animals. When the
planes came, we scattered. When the soldiers came, we hid in caves. We drank
swamp water and ate leaves. My baby died in my arms from hunger." —
Esperance, refugee woman, survivor testimony from the UN Mapping Report
Rwanda's
Controlled Narrative and International Image
Kagame's
Controlled Narrative
Paul Kagame's government has masterfully
positioned itself as a survivor regime, leading a moral crusade against
genocide and instability. However:
- It has
used the legacy of genocide as a political weapon to silence critics and
consolidate power.
- It has
criminalised Hutu identity to the point where memorialising Hutu
civilians—innocent or not—is seen as genocide denial.
- It has
controlled media, education, and memorialisation to present a one-sided
historical account.
Rwanda's
Global Image: The Power of PR vs. Reality
Since 1994, Rwanda has positioned itself on
the global stage as a model of post-genocide recovery: clean cities, high GDP
growth, gender equality in parliament, and tech-friendly urban development.
Beneath this impressive image, however, lies a darker reality—systematic human
rights abuses, targeted violence, and international complicity enabled through
high-level public relations campaigns.
Rwanda has rebuilt its international
reputation with remarkable efficiency, thanks in part to highly paid
international PR firms. These firms have helped project Rwanda as a
"post-conflict miracle" while masking serious human rights abuses and
war crimes committed by the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA) under the leadership
of Paul Kagame.
Rwanda's
Use of International PR Firms
Rwanda has spent millions of dollars hiring
international PR and lobbying firms—mostly based in the United States and the
United Kingdom—to:
- Rebrand
itself as "The Singapore of Africa"
- Downplay
or outright deny allegations of war crimes in the DRC
- Shield
President Paul Kagame and his military elite from legal accountability
- Attract
foreign investors, international donors, and tourists
For example:
- Firms
such as Racepoint Global, Podesta Group, and Chelgate have been employed
to influence Western media and policymakers.
- Op-eds
praising Kagame's leadership frequently appear in major outlets, often
ghostwritten or commissioned via these networks.
- High-profile
figures (former presidents, tech billionaires, UN officials) have been
invited to Kigali and shown a curated version of Rwanda's success story.
This PR machine has made it difficult for
stories about atrocities against Hutu civilians, political assassinations, and
extrajudicial killings to break through into mainstream Western discourse.
Rwanda's PR
Strategy
Rwanda has worked with firms such as:
- Racepoint
Global (formerly W2 Group): Provided image management services in the
United States. Source: Foreign Agents Registration Act (FARA) filings,
U.S. Department of Justice
- Podesta
Group (now defunct): Hired in 2014 to promote Rwanda's development agenda
and counter criticism of its role in DRC. Source: FARA filings; BuzzFeed
News, "The Podesta Group Was a Foreign Agent, DOJ Says," 2019
- Chelgate
Ltd (UK): Engaged to influence British and EU policy in favour of Rwanda.
Source: UK Lobbying Register; Spinwatch reports.
"Rwanda is probably the most brilliant
example of post-conflict image reconstruction in modern African history—but at
what cost to truth and justice?" — Dr. Filip Reyntjens, University of
Antwerp.
Repression
and Human Rights Abuses
"Double
Genocide" Taboo
Any mention of the massacres of Hutus is
dismissed as an attempt to create "false equivalency" or promote a
"double genocide" narrative—yet the UN Mapping Report itself states
that RPA crimes could amount to genocide if proven in court.
Repression
Inside Rwanda
Inside Rwanda, any attempt to speak about
these atrocities or to question Kagame's official narrative is met with:
- Intimidation,
surveillance, and imprisonment
- Use of
"divisionism" laws to criminalise dissent
- Arbitrary
arrests of journalists, academics, and former government officials
- Assassinations
of critics in exile—documented in South Africa, Uganda, Mozambique, and
Belgium.
This creates an environment where truth cannot
flourish, and where Hutu survivors inside Rwanda live in silence.
Inside Rwanda, the Kagame regime maintains
tight control through laws and covert operations.
- "Divisionism"
and "genocide ideology" laws are used to arrest and silence
critics, especially those who speak about Hutu suffering. Source: Amnesty
International, "Rwanda: Justice in Jeopardy," 2002 HRW,
"Law and Reality: Progress in Judicial Reform in Rwanda," 2008
- Dissidents
and journalists have been assassinated in exile, including:
- Patrick
Karegeya, former intelligence chief (killed in South Africa, 2013) Source:
BBC News, "Former Rwanda Intelligence Chief Found Dead," Jan
2014
- Seth
Sendashonga, former Minister of Interior (assassinated in Nairobi, 1998)
Source: Reyntjens, F. "Political Governance in Post-Genocide
Rwanda".
Atrocities
Against Hutu Civilians
Silencing
the Dead: The Erasure of Hutu Victims
Nighttime
Killings in Rwanda
Numerous reports detail how RPF/RPA forces
disappeared or executed Hutu civilians—particularly former government
officials, intellectuals, or those suspected of "genocidaire"
connections.
- Human
Rights Watch (HRW) documented that RPA forces executed thousands of Hutu
civilians between 1994 and 1995, especially in areas like Butare,
Gitarama, and Ruhengeri. Source: HRW Report "Leave None to Tell the
Story" (1999), Chapters 16 & 17 HRW, "Rwanda: The Search for
Security and Human Rights Abuses" (1999).
"In many cases, entire families were
taken from their homes at night and never seen again. No bodies were found. The
killings were systematic." — HRW researcher Alison Des Forges.
Drownings
and Death by Starvation in the Congo Forest
From 1996–1997, as Rwanda invaded eastern
Zaire (now DRC), RPA forces pursued Hutu refugees into the forests. Mass
drownings and starvation were used as methods of extermination.
- The UN
Mapping Report (2010) documented hundreds of massacres of Hutu civilians,
including reports that:
- Hutu
refugees were forced into rivers such as the Lubutu, Lowa, and Zaire
River, where many drowned.
- Thousands
died in the forests of Tingi-Tingi, Shabunda, and Walikale due to
deliberate starvation tactics, including blockades and the destruction of
food sources. Source: UNOHCHR, "Democratic Republic of the Congo
1993–2003: UN Mapping Exercise Report," August 2010 – see paras.
500–580.
"The systematic massacres of Hutu
civilians… if proven in a competent court, could constitute crimes of
genocide." — UN Mapping Report, para. 517.
- In May
1997, an estimated 300 Hutu civilians were massacred in Mbandaka after
being promised food and repatriation. Source: UN Mapping Report, para. 566
Also cited in: Amnesty International, "Democratic Republic of Congo:
Killings and Other Human Rights Violations by the ADFL," 1997.
Key
Military Figures: James Kabarebe's Role
Who is
James Kabarebe?
- Commander
of Rwandan forces during First Congo War (1996–1997).
- Chief
of Staff of Rwandan Defence Forces.
- Minister
of Defence (2010–2018).
- Adviser
to President Kagame and a key figure in Rwandan military operations in the
DRC.
General James Kabarebe is a high-ranking
Rwandan military officer and one of the most central figures in the RPF's
military operations in Zaire/DRC during the 1996–1997 conflict.
Crimes
Allegedly Committed Under His Command
- UN
Mapping Report implicates Kabarebe as commander of forces responsible for
dozens of massacres of Hutu refugees in Zaire. Source: UN Mapping Report,
Annex III
- In
2001, a French judge investigating the assassination of President
Habyarimana named Kabarebe as one of the suspects in the plane attack that
triggered the 1994 genocide. Source: Bruguière Report, French anti-terror
judge Jean-Louis Bruguière
- In
2008, a Spanish court issued arrest warrants for 40 Rwandan officials,
including Kabarebe, for crimes of genocide, war crimes, and crimes against
humanity committed in DRC (1994–2000). Source: Spanish National Court,
Judge Fernando Andreu's indictment (2008) Referenced in: BBC News,
"Spain Indicts 40 Rwandan Army Officers," Feb 2008.
Alleged
Role in Atrocities
According to the UN Mapping Report (2010) and
testimonies from Congolese and Rwandan witnesses, Kabarebe was directly
involved in the command structure of operations that targeted Rwandan Hutu
refugees in Congo.
1.
Strategic Leadership
- Kabarebe
coordinated military campaigns aimed at dismantling refugee camps in
eastern Zaire.
- Under
his leadership, the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA) moved from Goma, through
Kisangani, to Kinshasa—effectively conquering the country with
Laurent-Désiré Kabila's rebel coalition (AFDL).
2. Chain of
Command and Accountability
- The
Mapping Report and other investigations highlight that mass killings of
civilians could not have occurred without knowledge and/or orders from top
commanders.
- James
Kabarebe, as the field commander, would have command responsibility over
units that committed large-scale massacres of non-combatant refugees.
3. Named in
Legal Proceedings
- In
2001, a French judge indicted James Kabarebe and others in connection with
the assassination of former Rwandan President Juvenal Habyarimana and
crimes committed during the Congo wars.
- In
Spain (2008), a judge also issued international arrest warrants for 40
Rwandan officials, including Kabarebe, for crimes of genocide, war crimes,
and crimes against humanity committed in DRC.
Why Hasn't
He Been Held Accountable?
There are several reasons why Kabarebe has
never faced trial for these allegations:
- Lack
of International Will No international tribunal has had a clear mandate to
investigate crimes committed by RPF forces. The ICTR (International
Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda) focused only on the 1994 genocide, not on
crimes committed in Congo.
- Kigali's
Denial The Rwandan government has denied all allegations of crimes
committed by the RPA in Congo, describing them as politically motivated.
Documentation
and Academic Sources
Academic
and Policy Sources
Several scholars and policy experts have
extensively documented these abuses:
- Filip
Reyntjens "The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics,
1996–2006" "Political Governance in Post-Genocide Rwanda".
- Gerard
Prunier "Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the
Making of a Continental Catastrophe".
- Judi
Rever "In Praise of Blood: The Crimes of the Rwandan Patriotic
Front" – based on interviews with former RPF officers and leaked UN
documents.
"The RPF's killing machine operated like
a shadow—efficient, quiet, and absolute. Its victims were buried twice: once in
the forest, and again by silence." — Judi Rever, investigative journalist
Summary of
Key Reports & Sources
|
Source
|
Title
|
Date
|
Link/Reference
|
|
UNOHCHR
|
UN
Mapping Report: DRC 1993–2003
|
2010
|
Link to
official PDF
|
|
Human
Rights Watch
|
"Leave
None to Tell the Story"
|
1999
|
HRW
Report
|
|
Amnesty
International
|
"Killings
and Human Rights Violations by ADFL"
|
1997
|
Amnesty
archives
|
|
Spanish
National Court
|
Arrest
warrants against Rwandan officials
|
2008
|
Media
coverage
|
|
French
Judiciary
|
Bruguière
Report
|
2001
|
French
judicial archives
|
Why This
Matters
1. Justice
Must Be Equal
Selective justice undermines the very
foundation of international law. The world rightly demands justice for the 1994
genocide—but who speaks for the Hutu civilians massacred in Congo or
disappeared in Rwanda?
2. False
Narratives Breed Instability
As long as the truth remains buried,
resentment, fear, and mistrust fester beneath the surface. This is part of what
fuels ongoing conflict in eastern DRC and the formation of rebel groups.
3. The Cost
of Silence
By allowing Kagame's regime to escape
scrutiny, the international community becomes complicit in the cover-up. The
silence of Western powers has emboldened Rwanda to continue military incursions
into DRC under the guise of "security."
Why This
Truth Matters
Acknowledging these crimes is not about
denying the 1994 genocide—it's about ensuring justice is not selective. Silence
around Hutu victimisation perpetuates cycles of violence, fuels radicalisation,
and undermines reconciliation across the Great Lakes region.
A just future requires honest historical
reckoning, equal protection of all ethnic groups, and accountability for all
perpetrators, regardless of their political alliances.
Conclusion
The genocide of the Rwandan Hutu community in
the Democratic Republic of the Congo remains an untold chapter in African
history. It complicates neat narratives and challenges us to look beyond
simplistic binaries of victim and perpetrator. But ignoring it only perpetuates
injustice and undermines the long-term peace prospects of the Great Lakes
region.
History must be inclusive, even when it is
uncomfortable. The stories of the Hutu refugees who perished in Congo deserve
to be told—not as a footnote, but as a central part of the region's collective
memory. Only by acknowledging these truths can we hope to break the cycle of
violence and build a future grounded in genuine reconciliation.
The untold history of Hutu civilians who were
massacred in Congo cannot be divorced from the role played by senior RPF
commanders—among them, James Kabarebe. While it is true that the RPF ended a
horrific genocide in Rwanda, justice must be impartial. The fact that victims
were Hutu civilians—many of them women, children, and non-combatants—does not
lessen the gravity of the crimes.
Justice and historical truth in the Great
Lakes region must move beyond the binary of "perpetrator" and
"victim" if the cycle of impunity is to be broken.
The international community, the media, and
human rights institutions must find the courage to speak honestly about all
victims—regardless of ethnicity, geography, or political expediency. This
includes the Hutu civilians slaughtered, starved, or drowned in one of the most
brutal yet forgotten chapters of recent African history.
It's time to confront the manufactured
narratives, the PR gloss, and the enforced silence. Only then can the Great
Lakes region begin to reckon with its past and forge a peaceful, inclusive
future.
Books
- Clark,
P. (2010). "The Gacaca Courts, Post-Genocide Justice and
Reconciliation in Rwanda: Justice without Lawyers." Cambridge
University Press.
- Des
Forges, A. (1999). "Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in
Rwanda." Human Rights Watch.
- Gourevitch,
P. (1998). "We Wish to Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed
with Our Families." Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
- Lemarchand,
R. (2009). "The Dynamics of Violence in Central Africa."
University of Pennsylvania Press.
- Longman,
T. (2011). "Memory and Justice in Post-Genocide Rwanda."
Cambridge University Press.
- Mamdani,
M. (2001). "When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and
the Genocide in Rwanda." Princeton University Press.
- Peskin,
V. (2008). "International Justice in Rwanda and the Balkans: Virtual
Trials and the Struggle for State Cooperation." Cambridge University
Press.
- Pottier,
J. (2002). "Re-Imagining Rwanda: Conflict, Survival and
Disinformation in the Late Twentieth Century." Cambridge University
Press.
- Power,
S. (2002). "A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of
Genocide." Basic Books.
- Prunier,
G. (2009). "Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the
Making of a Continental Catastrophe." Oxford University Press.
- Rever,
J. (2018). "In Praise of Blood: The Crimes of the Rwandan Patriotic
Front." Random House Canada.
- Reyntjens,
F. (2009). "The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics,
1996-2006." Cambridge University Press.
- Reyntjens,
F. (2013). "Political Governance in Post-Genocide Rwanda."
Cambridge University Press.
- Stearns,
J. (2011). "Dancing in the Glory of Monsters: The Collapse of the
Congo and the Great War of Africa." PublicAffairs.
- Terry,
F. (2002). "Condemned to Repeat? The Paradox of Humanitarian
Action." Cornell University Press.
- Turner,
T. (2007). "The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality." Zed
Books.
- UNHCR.
(1995). "The State of the World's Refugees: In Search of
Solutions." Oxford University Press.
Reports and
Official Documents
- Amnesty
International. (1997). "Democratic Republic of Congo: Killings and
Other Human Rights Violations by the ADFL."
- Amnesty
International. (1997). "Rwanda: Ending the Silence."
- Amnesty
International. (2002). "Rwanda: Justice in Jeopardy."
- Amnesty
International. (2004). "Forgotten Victims: The Aftermath of the
Rwandan Refugee Crisis in Eastern DRC."
- Amnesty
International. (2010). "Rwanda: Safer to Stay Silent: The Chilling
Effect of Rwanda's Laws on 'Genocide Ideology' and 'Sectarianism'."
- Foreign
Agents Registration Act (FARA) filings, U.S. Department of Justice:
Records on Rwanda's contracts with Racepoint Global and Podesta Group,
2014-2019.
- French
Anti-Terrorism Judge Jean-Louis Bruguière. (2001). "Judicial Inquiry
into the Assassination of President Habyarimana."
- Government
of Rwanda. (2010). "Official Response to the UN Mapping Report on the
DRC."
- Human
Rights Watch. (1997). "What Kabila is Hiding: Civilian Killings and
Impunity in Congo."
- Human
Rights Watch. (1998). "Casualties of War: Civilians, Rule of Law, and
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