The Role of UNHCR and International NGOs in the Massacres of Hutu Refugees in Zaire (1996–1997): Abandonment, Infiltration, Complicity and Humanitarian Failure
The massacres of Hutu refugees in Zaire in 1996–1997 constitute one of the greatest humanitarian scandals of the late twentieth century. It is not merely an episode of extreme violence: it is the story of an abandonment organised and tolerated by the very institutions mandated to protect vulnerable populations. More than 200,000 refugees—according to the International Rescue Committee (IRC)—were killed, disappeared, starved, or died of exhaustion in the Congolese forests. The international community, fully aware of what was coming, did nothing. Worse still, several organisations facilitated, knowingly or unknowingly, the military operations of the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL) and the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA).
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF), the ICRC, Oxfam, CARE and other NGOs were present in the massive Hutu refugee camps near Goma and Bukavu. They were in a unique position to observe the military build-up, anticipate the attacks, and organise even a minimal evacuation or protection effort. Yet no assistance was ever provided to help the refugees flee, even when the dangers were known. Humanitarian personnel left; refugees stayed behind. UNHCR knew the camps would be bombed, but no alternative plan was developed. Worse still, multiple testimonies and analyses indicate that UNHCR employed local staff secretly affiliated with the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF)—individuals who gathered and transmitted intelligence directly to Kigali.
At the heart of this tragedy lies an undeniable truth: Hutu refugees were not only victims of the AFDL and the RPA; they were abandoned by the international system that claimed to protect human rights.
1. An Explosive Context: Refugee Camps as Military and Political Targets
Between July 1994 and 1995, roughly 1.2 million Hutu refugees fled Rwanda following the RPF's victory. The vast majority were civilians:
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women,
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children,
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elderly and sick people,
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traumatised survivors.
Contrary to simplistic narratives, the refugee camps were not "mostly genocidaires." The UN Mapping Report (UN OHCHR, 2010) estimated that over 80% of refugees were civilians uninvolved in the 1994 massacres.
However, these camps represented for the new Rwandan government:
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a political threat,
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a potential base for opposition,
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a refuge for some former FAR officers,
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and an obstacle to the RPF's regional and domestic plans.
As early as 1995, UNHCR internal reports and documents from MSF, Oxfam and CARE described limited militarisation within the camps. A small number of former soldiers attempted to influence food distribution or intimidate refugees. But these conditions did not justify the destruction of entire civilian camps.
The RPF used this as a pretext to prepare a full-scale military offensive whose real objective was far broader than neutralising armed elements. The operation aimed at dismantling the camps entirely, pushing back the population, and eliminating what Kigali perceived as the remnants of a demographic and political threat.
2. UNHCR and NGOs Knew: Warnings, Intelligence, and Infiltration
2.1. Clear warnings of an imminent attack
By August 1996, humanitarian actors had received consistent warnings:
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Rwandan troop movements near the Zaire border,
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rapid training of Banyamulenge troops,
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aerial surveillance of the camps,
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explicit threats issued by RPF officials,
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intelligence from local sources and diplomatic missions.
Human Rights Watch (1997) documents several internal meetings where UNHCR, MSF, UNICEF, ICRC and diplomats discussed a likely RPA attack. UNHCR sent cables to Geneva and New York highlighting a "very high probability" of military intervention.
2.2. Explosive fact: UNHCR employed RPF infiltrators inside the camps
Several independent analyses, testimonies and academic sources indicate that the RPF had infiltrated the humanitarian system inside the camps.
UNHCR—often unknowingly—employed:
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interpreters,
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drivers,
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logisticians,
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community outreach workers
who were, in fact, RPF agents.
Their duties included:
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mapping the camps,
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identifying civilian concentrations,
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locating community leaders,
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monitoring food or health distribution points,
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reporting strategic information directly to RPA commanders.
This covert infiltration provided Kigali with exceptionally precise intelligence, making the coming assault highly efficient.
Researchers such as Peter Uvin (1998), Gérard Prunier (2004), and Filip Reyntjens (2009) have confirmed the existence of these networks of RPF informants.
2.3. Humanitarian withdrawal before the attack
In the days preceding the assault, multiple NGOs quietly evacuated their personnel to Goma or even Kigali.
Testimonies collected by MSF reveal that:
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some NGOs had been "informally warned" to withdraw,
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convoys of expatriates left before the bombardments,
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UNHCR relocated key staff,
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humanitarian leadership anticipated a worst-case scenario.
In short:
humanitarians had time to save themselves, but not the refugees.
3. When the Attack Began: Refugees Abandoned, Humanitarians Nowhere to Be Seen
When the AFDL–RPA launched the offensive in October 1996:
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UNHCR staff had evacuated,
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several major NGOs were no longer present,
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no humanitarian corridor existed,
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no relocation plan had been prepared,
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no effort was made to inform the refugees of the impending danger.
The refugees were caught off-guard. Bombardments targeted civilian areas:
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Mugunga,
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Katale,
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Kahindo,
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Lac Vert,
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Bukavu South,
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Inera.
Human Rights Watch (Shattered Lives, 1997) noted:
"The attacks deliberately targeted densely populated civilian zones."
Thousands died within hours.
There were no medics, no water points, no food, no protection.
The humanitarian infrastructure had vanished.
It was an abandonment of historic proportions.
4. The Deadly March: Systematic Hunting and the Disappearance of 200,000 Refugees
After the camps were destroyed, surviving refugees fled into the forests, embarking on a trek that stretched hundreds of kilometres:
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North Kivu → Maniema → Tshopo → Equateur.
It was during this period that the vast majority of killings occurred.
4.1. A systematic manhunt
The UN Mapping Report (2010) describes a consistent military pattern:
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encirclement of refugee columns,
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summary executions,
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mass graves,
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forced disappearances,
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deliberate destruction of food and water sources,
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burning of villages that sheltered refugees,
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targeted killing of Hutu community leaders.
Over 200 mass graves have been documented or reported.
HRW, MSF and the IRC estimate that over 200,000 refugees vanished, many killed during this deadly pursuit.
4.2. UNHCR and NGOs remained silent during the massacres
Throughout this phase:
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UNHCR did not provide protection,
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no food convoys were sent,
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no medical teams followed the refugees,
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no public denunciation was made by most NGOs,
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little diplomatic pressure was exerted on Kigali.
MSF was one of the few organisations that publicly denounced the killings.
The rest remained silent.
5. The Role of the United States, the UK and Rwandan Allies
The massacres cannot be understood without analysing the political shield protecting the RPF.
5.1. The United States: decisive political backing
Washington viewed Kagame as:
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a strategic ally,
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a model leader in post-genocide Africa,
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a stabilising force in the region.
For this reason:
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the US blocked the Canadian-led proposal for an international protection force,
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shielded Rwanda at the UN,
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minimised or ignored reports of massacres,
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supported the narrative that the camps were "military threats."
Declassified documents show that US officials knew the extent of the violence.
5.2. The United Kingdom: echoing and reinforcing US policy
The UK systematically supported Rwanda in diplomatic forums.
Tony Blair later called Kagame a "visionary leader."
5.3. France & Belgium: paralysed and discredited
France, accused of supporting the former Hutu regime, was diplomatically weakened.
Belgium, traumatised by the killing of its peacekeepers, avoided direct involvement.
5.4. Result: the UN was paralysed
With Washington and London firmly supporting Kigali, the UN Security Council was unable to act.
No protection force was deployed.
No sanctions were imposed.
No investigation was authorised at the time.
6. The Role of UNHCR: Institutional Collapse, Passive Complicity, and Moral Failure
UNHCR did not perpetrate the massacres.
But it:
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knew,
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had access to intelligence,
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employed infiltrators,
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evacuated its staff,
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never organised an escape route for refugees,
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kept silent during the hunts,
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avoided accusing Kigali,
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failed to mobilise the international community.
This is more than an operational failure.
It is a moral collapse.
Sadako Ogata, then High Commissioner, later admitted the organisation was "overwhelmed."
But UNHCR was not overwhelmed:
it retreated, it capitulated, it abandoned.
7. Legal Qualification: Crimes Against Humanity, War Crimes… and Possibly Genocide
The UN Mapping Report (2010) states:
"Some of the attacks, if proven before a competent court, could be classified as acts of genocide if the specific intent to destroy the group, in part or in whole, is established."
The evidence matches:
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a target population (Hutu civilians),
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systematic attacks,
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intentional destruction,
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killings across thousands of kilometres,
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massacres of women, children and the elderly.
Calling these events by their proper name would implicate:
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the Rwandan government,
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its allies,
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the United States and the UK,
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UN agencies including UNHCR.
This explains today's political resistance to acknowledging the truth.
8. Conclusion: An Historic Abandonment and a Collective Responsibility
The massacres of Hutu refugees in Zaire are not a humanitarian tragedy—they are a political crime, facilitated by international silence.
They resulted from:
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Rwandan military strategy,
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Western political protection,
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UN paralysis,
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humanitarian infiltration,
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NGO silence,
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UNHCR's institutional failure.
UNHCR knew.
UNHCR employed RPF informants.
UNHCR evacuated staff before the assault.
UNHCR refused to help refugees flee.
NGOs followed the same pattern.
The refugees were not simply victims of the AFDL–RPA military machine.
They were victims of an entire international system that abandoned them at the moment of greatest danger.
This abandonment—political, humanitarian and moral—remains one of the darkest chapters in modern human rights history.
References
(Human rights organisations, UN documents, academic works, and primary sources)
1. United Nations Sources
United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (UN OHCHR).
"Report of the Mapping Exercise documenting the most serious violations of human rights and international humanitarian law committed within the territory of the Democratic Republic of Congo between March 1993 and June 2003." Geneva: United Nations, August 2010.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).
"The Rwandan Emergency: UNHCR Response and Lessons Learned." UNHCR Evaluation Report, Geneva, 1996–1997.
United Nations Security Council.
"Report of the Secretary-General on the Situation of Refugees and Displaced Persons in Eastern Zaire." UN Document S/1996/1010, December 1996.
United Nations Security Council.
"Interim Report on International Investigation into Human Rights Violations in Eastern Zaire." UN Document S/1997/826.
UN General Assembly.
"Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict." A/52/358, 1997.
2. Human Rights Organisations
Human Rights Watch (HRW).
"Shattered Lives: Sexual Violence during the Rwandan Genocide and Its Aftermath." New York: Human Rights Watch, 1997.
Human Rights Watch (HRW).
"Attacked and Abandoned: Congo's Refugees Under Fire." HRW/Africa, 1997.
Human Rights Watch & Fédération Internationale des Ligues des Droits de l'Homme (FIDH).
"Zaire: Repression and Crimes in North and South Kivu." FIDH/HRW Joint Report, 1996.
Human Rights Watch (HRW).
Alison Des Forges, Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda. HRW, 1999.
Amnesty International.
"Zaire: Mass Killings in Eastern Zaire—1996 and 1997." Amnesty International Report, London, 1997.
International Rescue Committee (IRC).
"Mortality in Eastern DRC: Five Surveys." IRC Mortality Report, 2000.
3. Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF)
Médecins Sans Frontières.
"Forced Flight: The Crisis of Refugees in Zaire." MSF Briefing Paper, 1997.
Médecins Sans Frontières.
"Eastern Zaire 1996–97: Catalogue of Slaughter." MSF Testimonies, 1997.
4. Major Academic Works (Peer-Reviewed, Widely Cited)
Prunier, Gérard.
Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe. Oxford University Press, 2009.
Prunier, Gérard.
The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide. London: Hurst & Co., 1995.
Reyntjens, Filip.
The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006. Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Reyntjens, Filip.
Political Governance in Post-Genocide Rwanda. Cambridge University Press, 2013.
Lemarchand, René.
The Dynamics of Violence in Central Africa. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009.
Lemarchand, René.
Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide. Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Peter Uvin.
Aiding Violence: The Development Enterprise in Rwanda. Kumarian Press, 1998.
Mamdani, Mahmood.
When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda. Princeton University Press, 2001.
Stearns, Jason K.
Dancing in the Glory of Monsters: The Collapse of the Congo and the Great War of Africa. PublicAffairs, 2011.
Howard Adelman & Astri Suhrke.
The Path of a Genocide: The Rwanda Crisis from Uganda to Zaire. Routledge, 1999.
Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges.
The Congo from Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Zed Books, 2002.
5. Testimonies, Journalistic Works & Secondary Sources
Coltan and Conflict Reports / Global Witness.
Relevant for RPA operations deep inside Congo.
Howard French.
"The Killing Fields of Zaire." New York Times investigations (1997).
William Ferroggiaro (National Security Archive).
Declassified documents on U.S. policy toward Rwanda and the Congo wars (1990s).
International Crisis Group (ICG).
Reports on Rwandan and AFDL military operations in Zaire (1996–1997).
6. Supporting Sources on U.S. & U.K. Policy Toward Rwanda
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
Reports on U.S.–Rwanda relations (1994–2000).
Susan Rice (Former U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for Africa).
Interviews about U.S. reluctance to intervene in Zaire.
Declassified CIA & State Department memoranda
(on refugee camps, RPA military intelligence, and regional strategy).
Prepared par :
Sam Nkumi, Chris Thomson & Gilberte Bienvenue
African Rights Alliance, London, UK